Address A Crisis & Prepare A Nation

USS Arizona after Japan's attack

December 7th marked the seventieth anniversary of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.  A brazenly daring air attack that crippled the United States Pacific Fleet in Hawaii and shocked a nation, that, until that moment remained on the sidelines in the global conflict.  The next day, President Franklin D. Roosevelt spoke the immortal words "a date which will live in infamy" and Congress declared war on the Empire of Japan.  On December 9, 1941, the President, speaking on the radio, reached out to the shaken and uncertain American people in his nineteenth Fireside Chat.  At a time of crisis, citizens look to their leaders for hope, inspiration, and confidence. President Roosevelt's words needed to inform and comfort, but also to focus the emotional toll while guiding the American people into their upcoming missions.
President Roosevelt began his address to the American people by laying out the evil perpetrated by the Japanese military on the United States.  Yet, he weaved their attack on us into the many instances of Germany and Italy's blatant aggression.   Roosevelt declared "We are now in this war.  We are all in it - all the way."  Without sugarcoating any facts, he informed the American people with negative news.  Japan inflicted a heavy blow at Pearl Harbor.  Our bases in the Pacific, though not confirmed, have probably been overrun.  Despite facing this horrific act, the President urged Americans to remain vigilant and to battle the rising propaganda monster.  In simple terms, he asked citizens to not believe the hype.  The government would provide as much information as possible to the American people as long as it did not endanger the American military or tip off the enemy.  Reaching his conclusion, President Roosevelt indicated the hard work and sacrifice required to maintain the war effort.  Americans must be dedicated to our nation's needs.  Our mission did not mirror the goals of Japan or Germany.  Roosevelt states, "We are now in the midst of a war, not for conquest, not for vengeance, but for a world in which this Nation, and all that this Nation represents, will be safe for our children...We are going to win the war and we are going to win the peace that follows."
Here stood a man leading our nation through a decade of economic and financial turmoil.  Here stood a man watching for two years as great powers brutally faced off on the other continents.  Now, here stood a man making a crucial speech to our country uneasy about its situation, confused about its global standing.  Franklin D. Roosevelt needed to address a crisis and prepare the United States.  Though far less quoted and overshadowed by his speech the day prior, the President succeeded in these goals.  He laid out the implications of America's entry into the war: uncertainty, struggle, sacrifice, but success.  It worked better as a realistic description of our nation's plight as opposed to a blood and guts speech with war drums beating in the background.  The country required a level-headed analysis to counteract the deadly and surreal events witnessed two days before at Pearl Harbor.  Our citizens listened to President Roosevelt and met the dire challenges facing them.

Sources:

Franklin D. Roosevelt: "Fireside Chat.," December 9, 1941.  Online by Gerhard Peters & John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=16056.

Photo courtesy of the Library of Congress.

Federalist No. 14

We should remember that every single day on the calendar an historical event occurred.  I admit there are events that receive shorter discussions and dialogue, but historians need to dig up these lesser-known gems and give them their just dues.  So let us look back 224 years ago to the last day in November 1787 and analyze an overshadowed piece of political writing released at a time in our country's history where it sat poised to take a dramatic step or possibly an epic fail.
Uncertainty about our nation's course led our Founding Fathers to meet again and evaluate the current form of government.  After the final draft of the Constitution left the Constitutional Convention in September 1787 to be examined and decided upon by the States, many papers arguing in favor and against the new document surfaced for the public to read.  The Anti-Federalists and Federalists battled to influence the public and state legislatures to either continue with the Articles of Confederation or to ratify the new Constitution.  The Federalist Papers helped convince those who saw the Articles of Confederation as a failing form of government.  Under the pseudonym "Publius", Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison contributed to the 85 essays.  Alexander Hamilton actually wrote and coauthored a total of 65 of the essays, which is a highly extensive amount of writing, especially on the topic of a newly envisioned government.  On November 30, 1787, "Federalist No. 14" reached the New York public's hands and minds.  Though not as famous or noteworthy as other essays, "Federalist No. 14" presents some interesting points.
In this short piece, James Madison reiterates, in a concise manner, arguments from previous essays rebutting the Constitution's opponents.  He begins by clarifying that the new government will form a republic, and not solely a democracy.  By its nature, the government will be democratic because the people will participate in the process.  Yet, a democracy and a republic are different entities.  A democracy requires direct participation, not simply in voting, but by being present in the city or building where the government meets, thus causing it to be limited in size.  In a republic, individuals participate by choosing others to represent them and instead, those representatives travel to the government.  This allows for greater size and even expansion.  He points out how the United States had been a large, functional, and successful republic by stating:

It will not be said by those who recollect that the Atlantic coast is the longest side of the Union, that during the term of thirteen years, the representatives of the States have been almost continually assembled, and that the members from the most distant States are not chargeable with greater intermissions of attendance than those from the States in the neighborhood of Congress.

Before his conclusion to the New York citizenry, Madison enumerates four benefits inherent to the new republic.  First, the State's governments and legislatures will not be overruled or overpowered by the national government.  Secondly, the republic's goal is to unify the States and provide avenues for the incorporation of new ones.  Next, traveling improvements in infrastructure for roads and canals will help with diffusing information and promote solidarity.  Lastly and highly crucial, the new union grants security from foreign invasion.
With 85 essays written, it is easy for any of these writings to be overlooked.  It can also be said that some are not noteworthy.  "Federalist No. 14" succinctly illustrates the dissimilarities between democracies and republics and also how the States can mutually benefit from joining together under a national government.  Personally, I have an affinity for The Federalist Papers.  They are awe-inspiring works done by educated men attempting to promote a government that surprisingly, at the core, still functions how they envisioned it.  I suggest reading them, but do so slowly because the language and wording can be daunting at times.

Refresh your memory with "The Anti-Federalist Debate About the Supreme Court."

Sources:

"Federalist No. 14: Objections to the Proposed Constitution From Extent of Territory Answered."

Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison in The Federalist: A Commentary on the Constitution of the United States.  ed.  Robert Scigliano.  New York: Random House, 2000.

The 509th Parachute Infantry Battalion

Through my younger years, I spent an exorbitant amount of time with my nose in historical books.  I preferred to read everything that I could about World War II.  Anyone who has paged through the plethora of written material about this pivotal time in history will most likely read about the United States Army Airborne.  In the early 90's Stephen Ambrose wrote, Band of Brothers,  a riveting book about Easy Company of the 101st Airborne.  It, coupled with the movie Saving Private Ryan, created a bounty of excitement into popular history books on the conflict and fueled a new generation of Americans to look back at their grandparent's role in the war.  There is a heavily favored fascination with the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions and their combat history.  However, most Americans would never know that there was another group of men with the same tenacious vigor and bravery.
Author Jim Broumley illuminates the lesser-known and overshadowed story about the 509th Parachute Infantry Battalion in his recent book, The Boldest Plan is the Best: The Combat History of the 509th Parachute Infantry Battalion during WWII.  He proceeds to trace the formation of the Battalion up to its bloody deactivation after the Battle of the Bulge.   The 509th made the first combat jump into North Africa and I can honestly say I did not know this.  Broumley weaves in notable soldiers like Colonel Edson Raff, Lieutenant General William P. Yarborough, and my personal favorite the indispensable Colonel "Doc" Alden.
In the history community, there are two sides when approaching research for a historical work: academic history versus popular history.  Academic history presents an historical question with a powerful thesis.  The average person would not regularly look to these books for pleasure reading.  Relying on primary sources, these works contain dense arguments and can be weighed down with heavy notes and citations.  Yet, they offer significant contributions to the historical community.  Popular history takes the opposite approach.  Present historical narratives, events, and figures for the general public to read and understand.  It will not have those dreaded footnote eyesores, endless note pages, or bibliographies.  After reading Broumley's book, I feel he managed to take these two different historiographical styles and meld them successfully into a cohesive work.  By utilizing repositories like the National Archives and the U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center, he grabs the primary sources needed to gain the first hand knowledge and stories in the book.  His language, knowledge, and personal military background allows for his book to be effectively disseminated to the average American for enjoyment.  I personally urge everyone to pick up this book honoring these brave mens' trials, tribulations, and sacrifices.

Jamaican Bobsledding

Recently, I traveled to the island nation of Jamaica located less than 100 miles south of Cuba in the Caribbean Sea.  Jamaica, much like a number of other Caribbean islands, relies heavily on foreign tourism.  A culturally rich country with beautiful beaches and verdurous landscapes, Jamaicans take great pride in promoting their nation and well-known individuals such as Harry Belafonte, Bob Marley, and Usain Bolt.  With the Olympics, Jamaica illustrates this patriotism most prominently, and tourists become informed quite quickly.  Usain Bolt, the fastest man in the world, continues to gain notoriety and keeps popping Jamaica into international headlines.  Yet, one thing can almost always be mentioned when speaking about Jamaica: bobsledding.  After watching a pushcart derby, two Americans visiting Jamaica pursued the creation of a Jamaican bobsled team because of its striking parallels to the winter sport.  Jamaican bobsledding hit the international stage in the 1988 Calgary Winter Olympics.  Though they did not medal, the Jamaican team burned a lasting impression on critics, other competitors, and the world for their efforts.    I have to mention the slightly farcical movie Cool Runnings about the 1988 Jamaican bobsled team because it could probably be noted as the way most people have heard of the team.
At the Mystic Mountain Rainforest Adventure in Ocho Rios, any visitor has the opportunity to become a bobsledder.  An individual climbs into a mock bobsled car fit for one person and drives down a mountain on a metal track.  Dips and sharp turns come at you as you careen down at roughly forty miles per hour.  The only things controlling how fast the car travels down the track are gravity and the rider.  Two handles on the car allow the rider to release the brakes or to slow down the car.  Pushing forward lets gravity pull the car down the track and pulling back on the handles engages the breaks.  I can personally say I enjoyed this part of my excursion and I would recommend checking it out if you ever are in Jamaica.

9/11/01 - Ten Years Elapsed

1 World Trade Center

Here we stand on the ten-year anniversary memorializing the September 11th attacks.  We reflect on that day's events and the years that have passed.  We think about our feelings.  Surreal sensations rise up when reminiscing, reliving the day.  We hope to be at a point of healing with the memorials being opened in New York City.  Many Americans feel and display a variety of emotions across different spectra of expression.  I think this all returns to how we were connected to those moments, places, and people.  On this tenth anniversary, Americans recall their every movement, emotion, and reaction when they became glued to the television or radio.
Ten years ago, I was a lowly freshman at college in Philadelphia, only two weeks into classes, just a few months out of high school.  On September 11th, 2001, I woke up and walked to my morning Spanish class.  I knew nothing about what had transpired when class ended.  As I returned to my dorm, I overheard comments and mutterings about a plane crashing into buildings in New York City.  Sensing no real urgency or fear from what I heard, I continued to the dorm and inquired about what was going on from the security desk in the lobby.  All he would say was, "You better check the television and see for yourself."  I went to the lobby couch room where they had a television.  I could not believe my eyes when I saw black smoke billowing out of both towers of the World Trade Center.  Ten years later, I still recall that day as it was just happening.  9/11/01 will be forever etched in my memory and our country's collective memory.
Where do we stand as a nation on 9/11/11?  Are we on the right path in action, in remembrance, or in healing?  Has the blow lessened after a decade?  It will be impossible to forget its place in history.  Will it only be remembered by the generations who lived and witnessed it?  Can the United States ever be whole again?  Will 9/11/01 be a moment of vulnerability or a unifying catalyst?
We, as citizens regardless of our standing, occupation, experience, or political motivation will shape our nation's course in the coming years.  How we move forward will depend on our national dialogue and directly affect the history surrounding this tumultuously tragic and heroic moment.

South Tower Footprint

Photos courtesy of John Mikuljan.

Keeping Soldiers' Stories Alive

Americans enjoy a good soldier's story.  They allow us to view the world from a different point of view and help us to understand pivotal moments in military history, but also our country.  Each story can shed new light on a major campaign, describe camp life, or bring out a lesser-known event.  With over two hundred years of American history, brave men and women have served in the military for varying reasons and passed on their stories to new generations.  Families recall an ancestor's sacrifice or a parent retells a grandparent's World War II experience.  It invokes a search for a deeper understanding of past generations and helps swell pride into a young mind.  These kind of stories and experiences can be learned about not solely by hearing it from an older family member, but by viewing the Army Heritage Center Foundation's (AHCF) website.  One of their goals and motto is to "Tell the Army Story...One Soldier at a Time."  I have the great privilege to research, learn about, and upload these stories.  I urge you to check out these excellent educational resources for personal interest and national honor.  First go to www.armyheritage.org and click on Education & Programs.  Follow the drop down menu to Educational Resources, and then choose either Education Materials Index or Soldier Stories.  Both will take you to screens where you can learn about Army men and women from the Revolutionary War to the present.
A Soldier's Story begins with utilizing an incomparable resource, the United States Army Military History Institute (USAMHI) at the United States Army Heritage and Education Center (USAHEC) located in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.  The archives and library at MHI provide an uncanny and almost limitless amount of published sources, primary source documents, and an unrivaled photograph collection.  These stories are pulled from these resources and other governmental entities.  How a story evolves depends greatly on the information provided in the personal handwritten letters, diaries, or typed memoirs preserved in the archives.  The story does not only detail the individual's military career, but offers additional narratives interconnected to the soldier's life and experiences.  Please check out all the Soldier Stores on the AHCF's website.  Definitely view the ones I have personally worked on though: Corporal Abial Hall Edwards and Nurses Jane and Bell Robison.  Keep the AHCF in your browser's bookmarks and check back periodically.  There will be new additions frequently and definitely stories that will pique everyone's interest.

Empress Zenobia During Rome's Third Century Crisis

Certain trying and transitional periods in an empire's history truly illustrate the paramount strengths or weaknesses inherent to them.  Nothing proves this balancing act better than Rome's ability to quell a revolt during its Third Century Crisis.  Rome crippled by economic and military stresses faced a powerful Palmyrene military led by Empress Zenobia in the late third century.  These stresses were further exacerbated by the revolt because it inhibited its eastern luxuries trade, controlled Egypt's much-needed grain production, and placed Rome in a militarily dangerous situation.
Empress Zenobia reigned over the Palmyrene Empire after her husband Odenathus died in 267 C.E.  Left with an impressive military force, Zenobia invaded Egypt in 269 with an army over 50,000 strong.  After four battles with the Romans, the Palmyrene general Timagenes utilized his knowledge of Egyptian terrain to succeed in defeating the Roman army.  With this immediate success, Zenobia turned her forces northward towards Asia Minor (present-day Turkey) and held the cities of Ankara and Antioch by 271 C.E.

Rome quickly realized the precarious situation in front of it and the new Roman Emperor General Aurelian pressed his forces into direct conflict with Zenobia's Palmyrene army.  Aurelian rose to power after the vacuum left by the two previous emperor's sequential deaths, Claudius and Quintillus in 270.  He had been leading armies against Germanic tribes on the Empire's Eastern borders before he became emperor.  Aurelian passed orders to Probus, a future emperor, to retake Egypt while Aurelian marched into Asia Minor.  Good news returned to Aurelian with Probus' success in 271.  Palmyrene defeats at Tyana, Antioch, and Emesa allowed the Roman army to pin Zenobia's army in a defensive position back in Palmyra.  Before laying siege to Palmyra, a surrender ultimatum reached Zenobia, but she refused and attempted to flee the city to form a Persian alliance.  Rome discovered her plot and captured her before this came to fruition.  Palmyra capitulated once word reached the city about her capture.  By 272 C.E., Rome averted a catastrophic downfall thanks to Aurelian's immediate successes.  An extended Egyptian and Asian Minor occupation by Zenobia would have presented dire issues to Rome's survival by threatening its economy, its sustenance, and its military position.

Crucially situated on the Silk Road, the city of Palmyra sat as an essential junction on this ancient trade route.  Important roads converging southwest from the Arab Peninsula and east from Asia connected in Palmyra continuing northward through Asia Minor, the Balkans and into northern Italy.  Those two routes brought highly demanded luxuries like silks and spices from India and China.  Rome, over the centuries, invested an enormous amount of money into keeping these items flowing into its empire.  Zenobia's revolt, if not defeated, would have crippled and even controlled Rome's imports and economy.

Egypt and the other North African provinces cultivated and produced all of Rome's stable grains.  Zenobia's revolt, after succeeding in Egypt, held one-third of Rome's grain-producing land.  Not being able to feed its population or its military presented a huge problem for the empire.  Luckily, Zenobia did not push farther westward and occupy all of Rome's grain.  Though facing depleted grain supplies, Rome managed to conserve and protect its remaining granaries.  Plus, fears lessened when the Palmyrene army turned to Asia Minor instead of pushing towards the vital grain producers.
Lastly, Palmyra's revolt threatened Rome's military security.  As illustrated from the map, Palmyra sat situated between Rome and the Persian Empire.  Under Odenathus' rule, the eastern border of the Roman Empire had an effective defense.  Palmyra actually assisted Rome about a decade before its revolt in pushing back Persian forces led by Shapur I.  After this success against the Persians, Palmyra and Rome maintained a sensitive alliance.  If Palmyra fell or rebelled, Rome's eastern border swung open to Persian occupation and aggression; Zenobia's revolt illustrated this precarious situation.
Grim circumstances pushed Rome to deal swiftly with Palmyra's revolt.  Blocked trade, food shortages, and possible invasion presented a dire situation to the Roman people.  However, Aurelian's decisive command managed to halt an impressive military force and display Roman dominance once more.  Zenobia's revolt was a clear example of Rome's instability during its Third Century Crisis and illustrated that even a might empire could be pushed to collapse by one trading city.

Sources:
Paul Kurzawa, "Why Was the Revolt of Empress Zenobia So Threatening to Rome?" Shippensburg University, 2003.

Second Paragraph:
Richard Stoneman, Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1992), 155, 158-159.

Third Paragraph:
Ibid., 159-160, 165, 167, 169-171.
Map image found in Palmyra and Its Empire.  Reprinted from Irene M. Franck & David M. Brownstone, The Silk Road: A History (New York & Oxford: Facts on File Publication, 1986) Cartographer: Dale Adams.

Fourth Paragraph:
Stoneman, 32-34, 161.

Fifth Paragraph:
Ibid., 160.

Sixth Paragraph:
Ibid., 82-85; G. W. Bowersock, Roman Arabia (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1983), 137.

National History Day In Pennsylvania

A few weeks ago, I had the privilege to assist in overseeing the Pennsylvania State National History Day Competition at Millersville University.  For the past thirty-five years, students from all fifty states and United States' possessions have competed to become national champions in five different categories in the National History Day Contest.   Junior high and senior high students produce group or individual historical projects in compliance with a yearly theme by writing a historical paper, constructing an exhibit, acting out a performance, producing a documentary, or by building a website.  Each of these categories contains certain rules and guidelines students must abide by to enter their project, such as word and time limits, historical sources (primary & secondary), or measurement limitations.  Most of these projects start in a middle or high school history class.  Students spend hours in class and at home discussing, finding, and researching a topic based on the yearly theme.  Teachers, parents, and other mentors facilitate the process with support and praise because this can be a daunting task.  Research commences in school libraries expands to the Internet and could end with travels to archives and other research facilities. To reach the Kenneth E. Behring National Contest, competitors begin the National History Day journey by first entering one of their home state's regional contests.  A state may be divided into a number of regions, which usually encompasses a handful of state counties.  If successful at a regional competition, the student and the project will be forwarded to a State Contest.  Same rules apply, but of course the project quality increases between the students' projects at the next contest level.
I do not know how many total junior and senior high-school students compete in the regional contests around Pennsylvania per year.  Numbers vary based on Regional Coordinators, school districts, and student interest.  Some counties are not assigned to a region and therefore the students who might be interested in participating sit in limbo.  On May 11th, 840 Pennsylvanian hopefuls traveled to Millersville University in an attempt to be crowned Pennsylvania State Champion in their respective categories.  Two judging groups (3 judges in a group) per category read, interview, and watch roughly fourteen student projects each and pass on three projects for a total of six into the runoff round.   Another single group of different judges review the six projects the next morning and rank them from first to sixth.  First and second place will continue on to the National Contest at the University of Maryland.  Third place is an alternate, but if the first or second place winner does not wish to go on or is unable to go to the National Contest, they will fill in for them.
Sadly, my involvement has been limited with National History Day only beginning when I was senior in college and continuing with my current job.  I finished my high school career without ever hearing a single teacher mention the National History Day contest.  It is quite disconcerting that some schools do not give students the opportunity to participate in an outstanding academic competition.  I would ask and suggest that if you have a passion for history that you volunteer any free time to help out in any way.  These contests will gladly accept an individual's assistance.  With the National Contest coming up in a few weeks, it will not be late autumn or early winter until the regional competitions start up again for National History Day 2012.  Please be on the lookout for news articles or press releases for next year's call for volunteers!

The American Civil War Begins...150 Years Ago!

Bombardment of Fort Sumter

On April 12th, 1861, Confederate forces bombarded the Union's Fort Sumter in South Carolina.  We now remember this tumultuous event as the opening battle that started our nation's bloody civil war.  Lasting four years, Union and Confederate forces fought valiantly to defend separate ideals for different goals.  Many controversies have been argued and written about in regards to the Civil War and the subsequent social, political, and economic effects reverberating for the next 150 years.  Slavery, States' rights, and abusing Federal power remain as hot topics of debate about the war's causes.  For the next four years, Americans will celebrate, commemorate, and further consecrate our national battlefields where American blood was spilt.  It shall be a special time for scholars, reenactors, and history lovers.  We should remember both sides to this divisive conflict and period in our collective history.  I have read a handful of articles and commentaries on this four-year journey our country will take to remember its troubled past.  Some question why we are remembering the open rebellion and havoc brought upon our country by the Southern Confederacy.  Are we overstepping by glorifying individuals who threatened to tear the Union apart?  It is hard to not negatively view it.  However, Confederates were Americans.  They were not evil men, but defended an atrociously cruel institution with hopes to propagate it.  We cannot ignore or pass over these events because to do so would be unjust, unfair, and a travesty itself.  Let us be responsible and take the time to learn and understand this integral historical period.  Our past cannot be changed, nor should we attempt to forget about it because it carries upsetting repercussions and troublesome feelings.

Image courtesy of the Library of Congress.

No More Doughboys!

United States World War I Recruitment Poster

Sadly, the national news has reported that the last American World War I veteran passed away this month.  Frank Buckles understood patriotic pride and national honor when he, after a few attempts, enlisted in the United States military at the age of 16.  Though not seeing any battle, Buckles served in Europe and returned home in 1920.  This simple and dignified man left us after living a long 110-year old life.  Historians recognize the implications when looking at this truly unhappy occurrence.  Military veterans provide an abundant and uncanny amount of information when interviewed about their experiences on and off the battlefield.  Many historical groups, government agencies, and military entities have campaigned to record every veteran's story for future use and preservation.  Now with Buckles gone, an important generation of patriots are no longer alive or around for other Americans to make a connection to World War I. Thankfully, he pursued the means to ensure his story lives on forever in American's minds and hearts.  We have a civic duty to continue this process and avoid a future where these brave men's experiences are not placed in the historical record.

Image courtesy of the Library of Congress.